From Sangam Chieftains to British Rule: The Untold History of Baramahal and Its Forts
Baramahal: The Land of the Twelve Palaces
Hidden in the rugged plateaus of what is now northern Tamil Nadu, a region called Baramahal holds a name that is both poetic and powerful. The word comes from Persian: ‘bara’ means twelve, and ‘mahal’ means palace or administrative division. Together, they refer to the twelve hill forts and the lands surrounding them—a network that once dominated this landscape for centuries.
Today, this area mostly falls within the Krishnagiri and Dharmapuri districts. But for much of its history, Baramahal was a single, fiercely contested strategic zone—the gateway between the Deccan plateau and the Tamil plains.
The Twelve Forts: A Defensive Web
The twelve administrative divisions of Baramahal were:
Krishnagiri, Jagadevagarh, Varanagarh, Karalgarh, Maharajgarh, Bujangagarh, Kotagarh, Thirupathur, Vaniyambadi, Ganganagarh, Sudarshangarh, and Thattakallu.
| Historical Baramahal Division | Present-day / Current Identification |
|---|---|
| Krishnagiri | Krishnagiri |
| Jagadevagarh | gingee/" class="sial-auto-link">Jagadevi / Jagadevipalayam region near Krishnagiri |
| Varanagarh | Rayakottai–Hosur belt (identification debated) |
| Karalgarh | Possibly Denkanikottai region (not fully certain) |
| Maharajgarh | Maharajakadai area near Krishnagiri |
| Bujangagarh | Bhoochangiri / Boganapalli region (uncertain identification) |
| Kotagarh | Kotagiri or a lost fort settlement locally called “Kottai” |
| Thirupathur | Tirupattur |
| Vaniyambadi | Vaniyambadi |
| Ganganagarh | Gangavaram / Gangadevanahalli region (identification debated) |
| Sudarshangarh | Possibly Shoolagiri–Uthangarai belt (uncertain) |
| Thattakallu | Thattakkal near present Krishnagiri district |
Each garh (fort) sat atop a rocky hill, offering clear views of the valleys and jungles below. Together, they formed an interlocking defensive system that made Baramahal almost impossible to conquer without capturing all twelve at once—a painful lesson every invader soon learned.
Together they formed an interlocking defensive web that made the Baramahal almost impossible to hold without controlling all twelve simultaneously — a fact every invader would learn, painfully, in turn.
The region was also a major corridor connecting the Mysore plateau to the Carnatic coast. Armies, traders, herders, and tax collectors all moved through its passes. Whoever controlled Baramahal controlled not just taxes and timber, but the military road to southern India itself.
Sangam Age Roots: Adigaman’s Kingdom
The earliest known inhabitants of this plateau appear in Tamil Sangam literature (roughly 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE). Their center was Thagadur—present-day Dharmapuri—ruled by the Athiyaman (or Adigaman) clan. Their most famous king, Adigaman Naduman Anji, was known for his generosity and for supporting the great poetess Avvaiyar. Legend says he gave her a rare nelli (Indian gooseberry) to grant her long life—a story still told in Tamil culture over 2,000 years later.
Legend holds that Adigaman gifted the poetess Avvaiyar a rare nelli fruit to grant her long life — a story that has echoed through Tamil cultural memory for over two millennia.
The Athiyamans were one of the four major powers of ancient Tamil India. Their territory, Thagadur Nadu, covered much of what became Baramahal. Even today, the Krishnagiri district government officially calls this area Adhiyaman Nadu in memory of that ancient lineage. Many Navagandam memorial stones—erected for warriors who died defending their chiefs—have been found here, showing a martial culture long before the forts were built.
After the Sangam age, the region passed to the Pallavas (from the 2nd century CE). By the 8th century, the Western Gangas—a dynasty from southern Karnataka—extended their influence into the area. They were patrons of Jainism and Kannada literature, and traces of their culture remain in local temple architecture and inscriptions.
The Vijayanagar Era: Forts Built for Empire
Baramahal as a unified fortified zone truly began with the Vijayanagar Empire in the 14th century. In 1365–66 CE, Emperor Bukka-I marched south to crush the Sultanate of Madurai, bringing the Salem region firmly under Vijayanagar control. The empire ruled for nearly 200 years, and during this time the rock forts were built, strengthened, and given their lasting design.
The most famous is Krishnagiri Fort, built by Emperor Krishnadevaraya atop the steep hill that now bears his name (Krishnagiri means “Krishnadeva’s hill”). He entrusted it to a loyal chieftain, Jagadevaraya, who named the place Jagadevi in his own honor—but the emperor’s name stuck. Carvings of Krishnadevaraya with his two queens, making offerings to Lord Shiva, have been found at Rayakottai Fort, suggesting the emperor personally blessed these fortifications.
Rayakottai Fort, in today’s Denkanikottai taluk, was another key stronghold. Built in the 14th century, it sat on a rocky hill and communicated with other forts using signal flags. Its tall flagstaff could be seen for miles, allowing messages to pass between all twelve garrisons. Carvings of Shiva, Nandi, and Ganesha in the fort’s water tanks match those at Krishnagiri, pointing to a common workshop tradition under Vijayanagar rule.
Vijayanagar fell catastrophically at the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE). In the chaos that followed, Jagadevaraya’s descendants—the Gathi Mudaliars—became local lords, holding the forts in the name of whoever was in power at the time.
Bijapur, Mysore, and the Marathas: A Century of Conflict
The next 100 years saw bewildering changes. The Bijapur Sultanate seized Krishnagiri Fort in the 17th century. The Nayaks of Madurai extended their control, placing the region under Poligars (local military chiefs). Meanwhile, the Mysore Wadiyars grew stronger. In 1654 CE, Kantirave Narasa Raja captured much of Baramahal, including Dharmapuri and Hosur.
Then came the Marathas, sweeping through the Deccan in the late 1600s. For a time, Baramahal fell into their hands. But Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore fought back, reconquering the region by 1689. By 1704, all of today’s Salem and Dharmapuri districts were firmly under Mysore’s control. The Gathi Mudaliars, who had held power for decades, were finally removed from the political stage.
Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan: The Tiger’s Stronghold
The next transformation came with Hyder Ali, the self-made military genius who took control of Mysore in the 1760s. He saw Baramahal’s value immediately: it was a buffer zone, a tax base, a recruiting ground, and a chain of mountain forts from which he could threaten the British-controlled Carnatic to the east.
In 1767, the British tried to take Krishnagiri Fort. They captured the lower town but were repulsed from the upper citadel with heavy losses. Hyder’s defenders rolled massive boulders down the steep granite slopes—a tactic deadlier than gunfire on that narrow, rocky terrain. The fort’s signaling system, linking all twelve garrisons, allowed Hyder’s commanders to coordinate defenses across the entire plateau.
When Hyder Ali died in 1782, his son Tipu Sultan—the famous “Tiger of Mysore”—took over. Tipu made Baramahal a forward base. Krishnagiri became the military headquarters of his operations, along with Salem, Dharmapuri, Sankagiri, and Rayakottai. He improved the forts, maintained garrisons, and used the region’s well-developed roads to move troops and supplies with remarkable speed.
Hyder Ali’s defenders rolled massive boulders down the steep granite slopes — a tactic more lethal than musket fire on such narrow, rocky terrain.
Baramahal remained part of Mysore until the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792). Lord Cornwallis led British forces to break Tipu’s power, and the forts fell one by one. Rayakottai was captured in 1791, Krishnagiri in a surprise night assault on November 7, 1791. By the Treaty of Srirangapatnam (March 1792), Tipu was forced to cede the entire Baramahal to the British East India Company.
British Rule: A Mint, a System, and a Legacy
When the British took over in 1792, they inherited not just a chain of forts but a problem: how to govern a region with no hereditary landlords and a population tired of being squeezed by invaders. The solution they devised here would reshape land governance across South India.
Captain Alexander Read was put in charge. Instead of appointing local intermediaries (the Zamindari system), he tried a bold experiment. Without waiting for approval, he made a direct settlement with the farmers themselves, assessing each field individually and collecting revenue straight from the cultivator. This was the birth of the Ryotwari System, first implemented in Baramahal between 1792 and 1798.
The Ryotwari System was a land revenue system introduced in British India by Thomas Munro in 1820. It allowed the British government to collect land revenue directly from peasant cultivators called ryots, removing the role of intermediaries
Read’s junior colleague was a young officer named Thomas Munro, who later became Governor of Madras (1820–1827) and spread the Ryotwari system across the entire presidency. He argued that in South India—unlike Bengal—there was no large landowning class; the farmer was the natural owner of the soil. Direct settlement would cut out parasitic middlemen, give farmers security, and create a more efficient revenue stream. The system born in Krishnagiri’s dusty offices eventually covered about 51% of British India.
The Ryotwari system, born in Krishnagiri’s dusty revenue offices, eventually covered approximately 51% of British India. The thin red lines of that administrative experiment drawn on the Baramahal plateau endured, in modified form, until Indian independence — and beyond.
The British also set up a mint at Krishnagiri in 1794, striking gold, silver, and copper coins—a sign of how important the town had become. Rayakottai remained a British garrison for a while, but after Tipu’s final fall in 1799, its military importance faded. By 1880, it was largely obsolete. Today, it is a protected monument of the Archaeological Survey of India.
Baramahal Forts Today: Ruins, Treks, and Living Memory
Most of the twelve Baramahal forts survive in various states of preservation, from protected monuments to hidden ruins awaiting discovery.
Krishnagiri Fort is the most accessible, visible from the national highway. A flight of stone steps leads to the summit, where the old flagstaff mast—once used to signal between all twelve forts—still stands. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) maintains the fort as a protected monument.
Rayakottai Fort spreads across a hundred-acre hilltop. Its ramparts and bastions are largely intact, with ruins from both the Mysore Wadiyars and the British East India Company lying side by side. A cave ashram used by a 19th-century saint survives in maintained condition on the hillside below.
Thattakal Fort, one of the lesser-known garrisons, sits on a steep forest-covered hill that has earned a reputation among trekkers as one of the most challenging forts in the Krishnagiri district. Despite decades of neglect, large portions of its fortification walls remain intact—a testament to the engineering skill of its original builders.
Anchettidurgam(also called Anchitty Droog) survives as a ruined but photogenic hillside fortification. Its capture by the British in July 1791 was one of the early steps in the Third Anglo-Mysore War’s Baramahal campaign.
Jagadevi Fort: The Finest of the Twelve Baramahal forts
Located 15 kilometers southeast of Krishnagiri, Jagadevi Fort (also known as Jagadevidurgam) rises in two peaks—the western peak called Devalapadi and the eastern peak Jagadevidurgam. The fort derives its name from Jagadevarayar, a Vijayanagara chieftain who was granted this territory after defending Penukonda against the Bijapur army. It is perhaps the finest fort in the entire Baramahal, with defensive ramparts exceeding 30 feet in height rising above a steep rock glacis.
The fort was the original capital of the Jagadevaraya family before the capital shifted to Channapatna. Today, the fortification walls are highly damaged, and rampant quarrying in the immediate vicinity threatens the structure. Unlike Krishnagiri Fort, Jagadevi does not fall under ASI protection but is maintained by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department.
Rampant quarrying in the immediate vicinity threatens the structure. Unlike Krishnagiri Fort, Jagadevi does not fall under ASI protection but is maintained by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department.
For trekkers, the climb begins with rock-cut steps leading to Sri Netrikan Selva Vinayakar temple, where a unique three-eyed Ganesha carving greets visitors. Further up is the Sri Kote Anjaneyaswamy temple. At the summit, explorers can find Kannada inscriptions mentioning “Raja Raja Sri Jagadevaraya” and “Jagadevu durgam,” a natural water pond, and the ruined walls of what was once a palace. The views from the cannon point are spectacular—on clear days, you can spot other Baramahal forts including Periyamalai, Thattakal, and Krishnagiri itself.
The fort was documented in 1801 by the artists Thomas and William Daniell in their famous work Oriental Scenery, where they mistakenly identified the second peak as “Warrangur”. Both peaks were in Tipu Sultan’s possession until they were given up to the British in 1792.
Maharajakadai Fort: The King’s Market
About 10 kilometers from Krishnagiri, toward the Andhra Pradesh border, stands Maharajakadai Fort (also spelled Maharajakadai). The name derives from its history—Chola inscriptions found here call the place “Arsar Nilai,” meaning “King’s Market.” It was only during the rule of Shivaji Maharaja that the site was renamed Maharajakadai.
The fort has an extraordinary layered history. It was ruled by the Vijayanagara Kings until their downfall, then passed to Jagadevaraya (one of the strongest Palegars of the region), then to the Nawabs of Cuddapah, then to Shivaji, after which it was captured by Hyder Ali and brought under Mysore. Finally, after Tipu Sultan’s death, the British occupied the entire region.
The fort has an extraordinary layered history. It was ruled by the Vijayanagara Kings, then passed to Jagadevaraya, then to the Nawabs of Cuddapah, then to Shivaji, after which it was captured by Hyder Ali and brought under Mysore.
The hill itself is called Angana Malai, rising to 3,385 feet. At the summit stands a Venkataramana Swamy temple, along with fort ramparts, ruined buildings, granaries, water tanks, an eight-foot carved Hanuman statue, and a Mughal-era mosque and tomb. The fort played a significant role in the wars between Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, and the British.
For trekkers, the climb passes through multiple tiers of fortification. Much of the upper ramparts remain intact, and the summit offers a “so near, yet so far” experience as the peak gradually reveals itself. The locals point to a ruined structure called the Mahal (palace), where trekkers often rest and take in the surroundings. Ancient features known as “Pandava houses” can also be found on the hillside.
Conservation Concerns
Many Baramahal forts face serious threats. Jagadevi Fort has suffered heavily from quarrying operations that cut into the very rock of the hills. The Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department has carried out some restoration work, but much remains undone. At Maharajakadai, though the fortifications remain relatively intact, the site lacks formal protection and interpretation.
A Living Heritage
Across the Baramahal, the physical remains of these twelve forts—granite walls stained by centuries of monsoon rain, crumbling bastions from which once flew the flags of a dozen different powers, water tanks hewn from living rock—form one of Tamil Nadu’s most under-appreciated heritage landscapes. The region also preserves scores of Navagandam memorial stones from the Sangam age, inscriptions in Tamil, Kannada, and Persian from successive dynasties, and temple complexes that reflect the religious pluralism of a borderland that was always more than the sum of its conquests.
The Gateway That History Passed Through
The history of Baramahal is, in miniature, the history of South India itself. No single power held it for long. Sangam chieftains gave way to Pallavas, Gangas, Cholas, Vijayanagar emperors, Bijapur Sultans, Nayaks, Marathas, Mysore kings, and finally the British. Each left their mark—in stone, in law, and in memory. The twelve hill forts were the pivots around which all this power turned.
It is a quiet injustice that Baramahal is not better known. This is where the Ryotwari system—which shaped modern India’s agricultural economy—was born. Here, some of the most dramatic battles of the Anglo-Mysore Wars were fought. Here, ancient Tamil poetry, Vijayanagar architecture, Sufi tradition, and British administration all met in one rugged landscape.
Whether you climb the granite steps of Krishnagiri Fort at dawn, trace the faint lines of Tipu’s garrison roads, or simply pass through on the Bangalore–Chennai highway, Baramahal rewards your attention. Its hills have been watching history for three thousand years. They are patient. They will wait for you to notice them.
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